{"id":5881,"date":"2023-09-19T02:44:44","date_gmt":"2023-09-19T02:44:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/primolevicenter.org\/printed-matter\/?p=5881"},"modified":"2023-09-19T02:49:57","modified_gmt":"2023-09-19T02:49:57","slug":"the-heretical-origins-of-the-sonnet","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/primolevicenter.org\/printed-matter\/the-heretical-origins-of-the-sonnet\/","title":{"rendered":"The Heretical Origins of the Sonnet"},"content":{"rendered":"
\nEd Simon<\/a>\r\n\t \t\t
\n
Ed Simon is the Editor-at-Large for The Marginalia Review of Books<\/em>, a channel of The Los Angeles Review of Books<\/em>. A regular contributor at several different sites, his collection America and Other Fictions: On Radical Faith and Post-Religion<\/em> will be released by Zero Books this year. Visit his website at https:\/\/edsimon.org\/<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
This essay was published in: Daily JStor,<\/a> April 21, 2021<\/h6>\n

Of variable rhyme scheme and meter, sonnets are sometimes structured into stanzas of an octet and a sestet or of three quartets and a concluding couplet. They are normally fourteen lines long, though always with a concluding volta, the rhetorical turn that gives the sonnet its reputation for surprise, rigor, and elegance. In lyric intensity, in density of imagery and turn of phrase, a sonnet is instantly recognizable. The professor of comparative medieval literature Paul Oppenheimer, writing in Comparative Literature<\/b><\/a>, explains that sonnets are highly dialectical, whereby an issue (often concerning romantic love) is posed, but the \u201cform of the poem will solve the problem,\u201d a form somewhere between a poem and a syllogism.<\/p>\n

There are structural variations: the Italian or Petrarchan sonnet; the English or Shakespearean sonnet; Edmund Spenser and Alexander Pushkin both invented their own types, and there are any number of deviations, a flexibility that proves their enduring appeal. Oppenheimer argues that the \u201cinvention of the sonnet was a momentous event,\u201d as \u201cno major poet\u2026 in Italian, German, French, Spanish, and English has failed to write sonnets.\u201d And as Christopher Kleinhenz notes in the edited collection Francis Petrarch, Six Centuries Later: A Symposium<\/b><\/a>: \u201c750 years after its appearance, the sonnet still has the same basic form.<\/p>\n

Kleinhenz writes: \u201cFor centuries the sonnet has remained the most popular and the most difficult poetic form in Western literature,\u201d with few canonical poets since the Renaissance completely avoiding them. The endurance of the fourteen lines is startling, though a return to its complex origins almost a millennium ago provides a fuller understanding of its appeal. The sonnet, as it turns out, is many things; not least of which is a lesson in the complexity of societies and souls.<\/p>\n

With good reason the fourteenth-century Tuscan poet Petrarch is the sonnet\u2019s exemplar. In fact, he\u2019s often erroneously understood as its creator. Petrarch penned Il Canzoniere, a sequence of 366 poems\u2014the vast majority of which are sonnets\u2014dedicated to his idealized love Laura de Noves. Petrarch\u2019s vision appeared bold, new, and uncompromising, whereby he would declare in Sonnet 105 of Il Canzoniere: \u201cUnderstand me who can, for I understand myself\u201d\u2014a full-throated affirmation of radical individuality.<\/p>\n

Though he was an inhabitant of the Middle Ages, Petrarch\u2019s mind was of the Renaissance: the primogeniture of that era. \u201cThe early humanists universally regarded Francesco Petrarch as their founder,\u201d writes Robert E. Proctor in Renaissance Quarterly<\/b><\/a>. In his enthusiasms for travel, classical writing, and individual expression, Petrarch was a vital advocate for the pedagogical reform movement known as humanism. The fusion of aesthetics and erudition known as Petrarchism was foundational, for, as Oppenheimer argues, the \u201cinvention of the sonnet may possess an even greater importance: it may mark the beginnings of what we must mean by \u2018modern\u2019 poetry.\u201d Petrarch didn\u2019t invent the sonnet, however, for that honor is owed to an obscure (though brilliant) poet named Giacomo da Lentini, who was a notary for King Frederick II of Sicily, writing nearly a century before the celebrated Tuscan. If the sonnet was a mechanism for creating modernity, then da Lentini is the engineer whom we must credit. And yet even the most adept of engineers must draw from materials not of their own crafting.<\/p>\n

I\u2019ve seen it rain on sunny days<\/em>
\nAnd seen the darkness flash with light<\/em>
\nAnd even lightning turn to haze.<\/em><\/p>\n

So writes da Lentini in a sonnet translated by Leo Zoutewelle. While da Lentini doesn\u2019t reach the heights that we associate with Petrarch and Shakespeare, the hallmarks are all there. Structured as an octet combined with a sestet, and already with the characteristic volta which mimics a mind in argument with itself, da Lentini engages a series of contradictions, of \u201csweet things [that] taste of bitterness\u201d and \u201cenemies their love confess,\u201d but by the volta, these paradoxes are set in perspective by the even \u201cstranger things I\u2019ve seen of love.\u201d The paradoxes are never reconciled\u2014if anything, each line is a tiny dialectic\u2014such as when da Lentini writes of that which \u201chealed my wounds by wounding me\u201d and of being \u201csaved from love, [though] love now burns more.\u201d<\/p>\n

These contradictions aren\u2019t resolved, even as da Lentini moves from investigating the physical world (sunny days, light, frozen snow, etc.) to love. Central to the sonnet is that mystery, for as incongruous as sweet things being bitter might be, stranger still is love. Though a Christian gloss could be provided, there is a surprisingly secular feel, with Oppenheimer arguing that the \u201csonnet must itself be considered symptomatic of the slowly developing state of mind that we designate by the term \u2018Renaissance.\u2019<\/p>\n

The Sicilian School of poets had several traditions to draw from. Because \u201csonnet\u201d roughly translates to \u201csong,\u201d even though it\u2019s believed that few lyrics were ever actually set to music, scholars have searched for the form\u2019s origin beyond poetry. The most obvious candidate is the eight-line strambotto, a peasant song to which may have been added a sestet.<\/p>\n

There are also non-Western candidates, with scholars having long suspected that da Lentini drew from Arabic poetry. This was unsurprising, for Sicily was at the confluence of the known world. By the thirteenth century, Sicily had had periods of rule by the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Ostrogoths, Byzantines, Arabs, and Normans, with strong cultural influence from all of them. Buffeted between the Latin West, the Byzantine East, and the Islamic world, the Kingdom of Sicily was ruled over by Frederick, a Swabian German, who established a Palermo court known for its efficiency, tolerance, and innovation. With a large population of Jews and Muslims, Arab influence remained vital, with the Emirate of Sicily having fallen to Norman invaders only a bit more than a century before.<\/p>\n

The scholar Samar Attar claims in Arab Studies Quarterly that the \u201cformation of Italian literary texts between 1200 and 1400 cannot adequately be understood without reference to the various Arabic and Islamic sources that date back to the seventh century onwards.\u201d Likewise, literary scholar Kamal Abu-Deeb writes in Critical Survey that the sonnet has \u201cschemes, or structures, that are variations\u2026 on structures of the muwashshahat produced by Arab poets,\u201d a genre which unlike the sonnet is traditionally set to music, while Oppenheimer notes that several scholars have argued that the form \u201cderived from the Arab zajal, a rhyming stanza popular with the Arabs living in Sicily in Giacomo\u2019s time.\u201d Even more evocative than the morphological similarities are the thematic ones; with its volta, the sonnet mirrors the dialectic argumentation that marked Islamic and Jewish philosophy, and in its celebration of secular love there are antecedents in Sufism. \u201cThe idea that a beloved woman can be the manifestation of divinity or the emanation of God was acceptable among the Arabs much earlier before the thirteenth century\u201d writes Attar. In short, Petrarch\u2019s Laura has Islamic precedents.<\/p>\n

There is the potential for other idiosyncratic influences on the sonnet. From 1209 to 1229 the town of Albi in Languedoc faced a bloody crusade waged by the Church against a group of Christian heretics known as Cathars (though sometimes referred to as Albigensians, after the seat of their movement). Much romanticized in the ensuing centuries, the neo-gnostic Cathars promulgated a gospel that saw the material world as evil, argued that the universe was dualistically split between good and evil, extolled the equivalence of the sexes, and celebrated Platonic spiritual union (including a belief in reincarnation).<\/p>\n

The Cathars shared their Occitan tongue (closely related to both French and Catalan) with the troubadours, a movement of poet-performers who set their verse to music. There is academic disagreement about the relationship between the Cathars and the Languedoc troubadours, but some scholars argue that the latter were the artistic vanguard of the former, with Michael Bryson and Arpi Movesian in Love and its Critics: From the Song of Songs to Shakespeare and Milton\u2019s Eden<\/b><\/a> arguing that \u201cthe massacres that followed affected the poetry of the thirteenth century. No longer were poets free to flout the morality of the Church without trepidation.\u201d The result was that later troubadour poetry encoded Cathar beliefs rather than explicitly expressing them.<\/p>\n

From French Provence, many refugees from the destruction of Catharism made their way across the Mediterranean at the invitation of Frederick, and they may have influenced the nascent sonneteers. Writing in Speculum, the poetry scholar Elias L. Rivers declares that there is a \u201cconsensus with regard to most poetry of the Sicilian School, namely that the concept of love on which these sonnets are based is in general the same as that of the Provencal troubadours: the poet \u2018serves\u2019 his lady as a vassal.\u201d A tradition of idealized platonic love, so identified with Medieval poetry, finds its way into the early sonnets through Islamic and troubadour influence. Elias confidently declares that the \u201cnewly invented sonnet form so shaped, and merged with, the subject-matter of the troubadours as to constitute a coherent poetic genre of great vitality.\u201d<\/p>\n

On the other hand, in Parrots and Nightingales: Troubadour Quotations and the Development of European Poetry<\/b><\/a>, the French literature scholar Sarah Kay asserts that there was a \u201cgradual take-up of troubadour inspired poetry among\u2026 writers of the Sicilian school.\u201d While orthodox Catholics would have blanched at the association with heresy, the rich heritage of Occitan poetry \u201cwas acknowledged by Dante and Petrarch, who extended their indirect influence throughout the Europe of the Renaissance,\u201d as the editors of The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics write. So integral is the influence of Occitan upon the foundations of the sonnet that the comparative literature scholar William D. Paden in Annali d\u2019Italianistica<\/b><\/a> quips that he considers \u201cPetrarch as though he were the last troubadour.\u201d<\/p>\n

Oppenheimer claims that the Platonism that became foundational for Renaissance philosophy (also crucial to Catharism) is numerically structured into the sonnet. He sees a crucial relationship between the number of lines in the sestet, the octet, and the twelve lines of the poem before the concluding couplet. \u201cThe proportions 6:8 and 6:8:12 did play exceedingly interesting roles in the history of ideas\u2026 where they describe\u2026 \u2018harmonic\u2019 proportions,\u201d Oppenheimer writes, because the \u201cnotion of the 6:8:12 relation as \u2018harmonic\u2019\u2026 may be found much earlier, in the Pythagorean-Platonic theory of numbers.\u201d The ratio between the sestet and octet may indicate a mystical understanding that would dominate Renaissance humanism, but arguably even more important is what the form accomplishes\u2014a full-throated, lyrically compact, dialectically structured meditation on subjective consciousness. Oppenheimer claims that for this reason the sonnet is \u201cin a real sense, a lyric sung by the soul to the soul\u201d with a \u201cmysterious aesthetic perfection\u2026 like the profoundest of small mirrors, [which] still plumbs the depths of our best poets\u2019 richest gifts.\u201d<\/p>\n

There is an intrinsic mystery to the attractions of those fourteen lines. In the seventeenth-century Donne described sonnets as being like a series of \u201cpretty rooms.\u201d Two centuries later and Edith Wharton would call them a \u201cpure form\u2026 like some chalice of old time,\u201d and Dante Gabriel Rossetti said that sonnets were a \u201cmoment\u2019s monument,\u201d while in our own century Terrance Hayes claimed that they\u2019re \u201cpart prison, \/ Part panic closet, a little room in a house set aflame.\u201d<\/p>\n

The sonnet is arguably something else as well\u2014an ancient vehicle for ideas from a millennium ago, an innovation of forgotten poets in the sun-dappled, lemon-tree-filled courts of King Frederick II, his notaries working at the crossroads of east and west, Islam and Christianity, orthodoxy and heresy, for whom the form would function as an incubator for individuality, the lyric a catalyst for a new way of observing. Rather than saying that the sonnet was an exemplar of the Renaissance, it\u2019s more accurate to say that the Renaissance was born because of the sonnet, this perfect lyric gem of thought and experience.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

This essay was published in: Daily JStor, April 21, 2021 Of variable rhyme scheme and meter, sonnets are sometimes structured into stanzas of an octet and a sestet or of…<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":5882,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"ngg_post_thumbnail":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[4],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-5881","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-essays"],"yoast_head":"\nThe Heretical Origins of the Sonnet - Printed_Matter<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/primolevicenter.org\/printed-matter\/the-heretical-origins-of-the-sonnet\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"The Heretical Origins of the Sonnet - 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